Farah Wad Taktouk
Farah Wad Taktouk
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Folktales in Sudan: A Cultural Treasure
Folktales in Sudan: A Cultural Treasure
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Mail in the Mahdist State
Mail in the Mahdist State
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan (The Stone Press)
Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan (The Stone Press)
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Stamps
Stamps
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
Battle of Kerreri
Battle of Kerreri
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project
Farah Wad Taktouk
Farah Wad Taktouk
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Farah Wad Taktouk: The Sufi's Contribution to Public Awareness
Introduction
This study explores the life and legacy of Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk, a figure who inspired the people of Sudan in his time.Born around 1604, he hailed from the Arab Batahin tribe, which is now primarily settled east of the capital, Khartoum. A Sufi by practice, he stood apart from those who sought material wealth, vast tracts of land, and enslaved people as royal endowments from the Funj sultans (1504–1821).
Turning away from the worldly ambitions of his peers, Sheikh Farah dedicated himself to enlightening and guiding the common people. His intellectual and spiritual legacy endured long beyond his lifetime and remains influential to this day.Though he was granted extensive land in recognition of his stature, he chose to distribute it among his disciples and students rather than amass it for personal gain.
During Sheikh Farah’s era, Sudanese Arabic was a hybrid vernacular interwoven with elements from non-Arab African languages.When Arabs first migrated to Sudan following the Baqt Treaty in 652 CE, neither they nor the indigenous Nubians had the language to communicate effectively with each other. This language barrier grew more complex by the fact that the early Arab settlers primarily belonged to the Juhayna tribes, originating from South Arabia (modern day Yemen).The languages they brought with them to Sudan—Himyaritic, Nabataean, and Hadramitic—were not, in fact, Fuṣḥā or classical Arabic.These languages ultimately disappeared in their native Yemen, as they did among the Juhayna Arabs, who constituted the overwhelming majority of Sudan’s Arab population.
Despite these linguistic challenges, the Sufis of Sudan were at the core of the intellectual elite, serving as scholars and educators. Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk studied under two distinguished figures of this tradition: Sheikh Arbab Al-Aqa’id, author of Al-Jawahir (The Jewels), a treatise on religious doctrine composed in eloquent Arabic, and Sheikh Ibn Ammar al-Khatib, both of whom had pursued their education in the Hejaz and at al-Jāmi al-Azhar (al-Azhar Mosque) in Egypt. This deep knowledge of Arabic and Islamic sciences distinguished them, and Sheikh Farah, under their mentorship, surpassed his contemporaries in linguistic mastery and rhetorical brilliance.
At the time, Classical Arabic (Fuṣḥā) was not widely spoken in Sudan. However, Sheikh Farah developed a distinct linguistic style that bridged the gap between Classical Arabic and Sudanese vernacular, making it both refined and accessible. Dr. Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad al-Safi elaborates on this, stating:
“The common people of Sennar society were neither fluent in Fuṣḥā nor adept in reading it, for they were a hybrid Arab African populace. The best way to reach them was through a vernacular enriched with the eloquence of Fuṣḥā. To captivate and engage listeners, it was crucial to use eloquent techniques like embellishment and ornamentation, hallmarks of refined Arabic prose. Sheikh Farah, recognizing the power of rhythm, chose saj‘ (rhymed prose) as his primary stylistic device, for it lies close to poetry and possesses a natural musicality.”
Similarly, Dr. Mahmoud Muhammad Qalander remarks:
“Sheikh Farah undertook a rigorous and comprehensive study of the Arabic language under a number of scholars and ascetics, most notably Ammar ibn al-Khatib, who was renowned for his mastery of Arabic. As a result, Sheikh Farah had a deep mastery of rhetoric in all its aspects: Bayan (clarity), Ma'ani (meanings), and Badi' (rhetorical flourishes or stylistic refinement). A close reading of his works reveals his mastery of classical rhetoric. In Sennar society, where few among the common people could speak or read Fuṣḥā, the rhythmic flow of saj‘ became a powerful rhetorical tool. The lasting influence and reputation of Sheikh Farah stem not from mystical miracles or supernatural feats, hallmarks of many of his Sufi contemporaries, but rather from the sheer brilliance of his language, his mastery of saj‘, and his ability to craft simple yet profound expressions that linger in the collective memory. Some of his disciples later attempted to attribute extraordinary wonders to him, but he never followed the path of Sufi ascetics who encouraged such narratives”.
Despite Sheikh Farah’s intellectual brilliance and the enduring resonance of his teachings, his biography remains primarily preserved in the Kitab al-Tabaqat (The Book of Generations). The text states:
“He was Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk of the Batahin tribe, a scholar of doctrine who studied under the jurist Arbab and was a devoted student of al-Khatib Imad, from whom he learned the Arabic sciences. A masterful poet, his words were melodious and captivating. He spoke with eloquence on theology, exegesis, and literature, yet he renounced the material world, mourning even its scholars and Sheikhs, as he declared in his lament: “Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more.” It is said that some Christians converted to Islam at his hands, and he was ultimately laid to rest east of Sennar, where his tomb remains a site of pilgrimage. Even today, Sudanese people visit the graves of revered sheikhs, viewing them as awliya’ Allah assalihin (saintly followers of God). Sheikh Farah’s wisdom manifests through his aphorisms and poetic verses, which sought to guide people’s conduct in several important fields of thought:
On Work and Productivity
In the rainy season, let your hands not rest,
Come summer, roam as pleases you best.
Yet tend your beast, let not its hunger swell,
For greed alone will never serve you well.
Interpretation: Fall is the season of rainfed agriculture, when the farmer must tend to his fields, clearing them of invasive weeds that threaten the crops. In summer, when labor is scarce and time is free, one may roam as one pleases. Yet, amidst this freedom, it remains essential to care for one’s donkey, feed it well with sorghum, for neglect is a mark of baseness, and greed will bring no blessings.
Dig the trench and strengthen its base,
Toil beneath the scorching blaze,
That the Almighty may grant you grace,
Interpretation: Prepare your land well for the coming rains, even under the punishing sun, for diligence is rewarded both in this world and the next.
The plowman toils, his hands endure,
He lays a feast when crowds appear.
His wealth remains in golden store,
And paradise awaits him evermore
Interpretation: God loves the farmer who toils upon the land, a man so generous that he hastens to share his food with others, whether in times of joy or hardship. Blessed with abundance, he safeguards his gold in a hidden chest, saving it for times of need. And when the Day of Judgment arrives, his reward shall be none other than paradise.
O sorghum grain, with hues of wine,
At dusk I feast, at noon you’re mine.
And when I wake with dawn’s embrace,
It’s you alone, my heart will chase.
Interpretation: O sorghum, bringer of contentment, with your deep, wine-colored hue. I have stored you throughout my life, feasting on you at noon and night, only to wake up craving you once more.
O farmer’s hand that wakes at dawn,
Pray at first light, let sloth be gone.
Sow in season, harvest fast,
Then see who dares to outmatch your grasp.
Interpretation: O hand of the diligent farmer, always ahead of others; pray at dawn, for prayer must not be delayed. Rise early to your field, sow your crops before the rest, and gather your harvest at the first chance. Then look upon your yield and reflect; none shall surpass you in wealth and prosperity.
“O Sheikh,” the grain in whispers said,
“If peace and rest you have betrayed,
And sold the sleep from thine own eyes,
Then tell me, what is mine to advise?
Interpretation: The sorghum grain spoke to the sheikh, saying: “If you choose to sell your harvest, how does that concern me? Store me for your sustenance, and do not trade me away.”
On Faith and Morality
Where is Just Judge Dashin,
Who bent not to deceit nor sin?
His noble lineage, pure and bright,
Lit the world with guiding light.
Interpretation: Just Dashin is greatly missed. He upheld justice and never strayed into wrongdoing. His sons and descendants followed in his footsteps, kindling the flame of the Quran by teaching the book of Risala (The Message)
Alas! The sons of Jabir are no more,
The learned four, the wise and pure.
Seated high on pulpits grand,
They taught us truths beyond our grasp.
Interpretation: I mourn the sons of Jabir, great scholars they were. They were the descendants of Ghulam Allah ibn ‘A’id, the first to teach the Quran in Dongola, Sudan. They taught us of the faith what we had not known.
O ye who walk the crooked way,
With hollow piety on display,
When death’s dark call shall lay thee low,
Not even Wad Abdullah’s steel shall shield thee from the blow.
Interpretation: O follower of a misguided sect, you who perform deeds not for the sake of God, your actions are not in His name. When they carry you to the grave and the water of washing the Janaza (dead body) flows beneath you, not even Wad Abdullah’s steel chambers shall offer you refuge.
On the Transience of Life
It is the end of time; behold the sight,
The camels turn from burdens light.
Compassion flees, its trace unclear,
And children shun their parents dear.
Health, once grasped within the hand,
Now vanishes like shifting sand.
Free women walk as slaves once tread,
Unveiled, alone, with beauty spread.
No men remain; their corpses stay,
Like scattered ruins of yesterday.
The dawn withdraws, its light concealed,
And fortune's poor, how can they heal?
Interpretation: This piece of saj‘ may be a prophecy about the future. It describes the signs of the end of times: camels will no longer carry loads, compassion will disappear, and children will disobey their parents. Health will decline, and free women will walk unveiled in public, just as slave women. Men will vanish, leaving only their corpses behind. Truth will no longer be spoken, and those who are already unfortunate will find no relief.
In the end of days,
Homes shall roam, and speech shall thread its way.
Interpretation: In this prophetic verse, Sheikh Farah envisions the dawn of modernity: Perhaps foretelling trains, planes, and telecommunications, where people and homes move freely, and speech travels through wires.
Life engulfed me in its embrace,
Like fever burning, fierce and bright.
It came and went, it filled my mind,
Yet never once did it spare my plight.
It left me aged; my youth outworn.
Interpretation: Life overwhelmed me with its passions, much like a fever that consumes the body. It came and went, preoccupying my thoughts, never showing me mercy. In the end, it left me aged and worn.
When fortune smiles, trust not its grace,
For fleeting joys often mask disgrace.
Turn away, it casts thee wide,
With sharpened scythe to cut thy pride.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah warns of the deceptive nature of fortune. It may appear kind but can turn against its holder in an instant, just as a scythe fells the tallest stalk.
On Ego, and Death as the Ultimate Resolution
One day, a sheikh named Muhammad Abd al-Hay sought to test Sheikh Farah, boasting of his own strength and intelligence to see if Sheikh Farahwould do the same. He declared:
I am Muhammad, son of Abd al-Hay,
Sharp of wit, steadfast, and strong,
Sheikh Farah, unshaken, responded with humility and wisdom:
I am but Farah, weak and slight,
My very beginning was mere semen cast,
Placed in a place devoid of grace,
Were it not for God, there I would last.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah responded with humility, saying: I am Farah, and my very creation began as a mere drop of semen. I was placed in a form that held no beauty or honor. Were it not for the generosity of God, I would have remained there, untouched and unacknowledged, never to be seen or known.
In another test of his wit, a Sultan of Sennar commanded the Sufis and jurists to teach his camel how to read and write. His court officials hurried to seek out scholars and Sheikhs for the task, but all refused. When they came to Sheikh Farah, however, he agreed. Astonished, they asked how he could make it happen. Sheikh Farah said:
I am one of the Batahin,
Well acquainted with time’s own rhyme,
Four years shall pass, the end shall chime,
And death shall rule in its own time:
Upon the prince,
Or upon the Sheikh,
Or upon the beast in line.
Interpretation: Sheikh Farah promised to train the camel in four years. By then, however, fate would have taken its course; either the Sultan would die, or the sheikh himself, or the camel. The first line refers to the Batahin tribe, a group of Arabs from the Butana region east of Khartoum, known for estimating the age of camels with remarkable intuition.
On Women
Among them, some are full and fair,
Like silken bed, like none before
Among them, some, from youth so wild,
Defy all rules; untamed, defiant,
Like a stubborn mule’s own child.
Interpretation: Women come in many forms. Among them is a woman of fullness who command the bed, one of a kind, unmatched by any other. And among them is the one who, since childhood, lacks a sense of warmth or humanity. She is defiant and unyielding, much like a newborn mule, untamed and resistant to discipline.
Among them, some walk without grace,
Some turn to see who meets their gaze.
You toil in fields from dawn till night,
She drifts through homes in idle flight.
No meal she sets, no care she pays,
Yet answers back in sharpest ways.
Interpretation: Among women, there are those whose walk lacks grace, and those who constantly glance around to see if they are being watched. Some roam from house to house, gossiping instead of tending to their home. You return exhausted from a long day in the fields, only to find she has spent her time in idle visits. Worse still, she has not prepared food, and if you try to speak to her about it, she will respond with even harsher words.
Daughter of shame, a sorrow deep,
Her scent of sandalwood runs steep.
She greets with smiles, yet men beware,
For secrets lurk in her affair.
Interpretation: A woman born out of wedlock is a source of deep sorrow. She adorns herself with strong perfumes, mixing sandalwood, incense, and fragrant oils, announcing her presence wherever she goes. She greets even the most reserved men with warmth, but behind her words lie unspoken intentions, often strange and unchaste.
Among them, gold of treasured past,
Among them, brass, from earth amassed.
Among them, scorpions, sharp and sly,
That in the brittle thickets lie.
Interpretation:Among women, some are as valuable as stored gold; rare and precious, kept safe for times of need. Others are like brass, dug from the ground, of little worth. And then there are those like hidden scorpions, lurking among dry twigs, waiting to strike when least expected.
Who will claim this dove so pure and bright?
He shall regret, if out of sight.
Women are honor, wise men say,
So wed them well, O fools, today!
Interpretation: A man walked among the people, seeking a worthy match for his daughter who had reached the age of marriage. He asked, ‘Who will take this dove, so pure and beautiful?’ Then, he warned that those who refuse will one day regret it. Marriage is a source of dignity and protection, and wise men know its value. So he urged them, ‘Marry them, O fools, before it is too late!’
On Men
Among men are depths no eye can see,
And vultures feasting wickedly.
Among them, falcons swift and keen,
And those disgraced, of spirit mean,
Who drown their days in cups unclean
Interpretation: Among men, there are those with depths unfathomable, full of wisdom beyond reach. There are those like vultures, feeding on the dead, seeking gain from ruin. Others are like falcons, noble and self sufficient, taking only what they have earned. And then there are the disgraceful; sons disowned by their fathers, men who waste their lives drowning in drink.
The best of men are those of mind,
To sacred words their hearts aligned.
They shun indulgence, sloth, and greed,
Like mountains firm in open fields.
Interpretation: The finest of men are those of intellect, who live by the sacred texts of the Quran and do not live in heedlessness. They do not spend their days in idle sleep and gluttony, but rather, they stand strong and steadfast, like mountains rising above the plains; clear in their purpose, unwavering in their strength.
Among them, lions fierce and bold,
Among them, sheep in feeble fold.
Among them, goats with stubborn pride,
And cursed ones, lost, cast aside,
Who waste their lives in clouds of smoke.
Interpretation: Among men, there are those who are strong and noble, full of courage and generosity. Others are weak, like sheep and goats, timid and easily led. Then there are the ill fated ones, reckless and lost, squandering their lives in foolish indulgences, wasting their days smoking from the kadous pipe.
On Rulers and Sultans
Cursed be the prince, if truth he shuns,
His word unkept, his deed undone.
Cursed be the prince, if wrath he sows,
And leaves his people drowned in woes.
Cursed be the prince, if blind to right,
He strays from justice, shuns the light.
Interpretation: May God’s curse be upon the ruler who does not align his actions with his words, one who says one thing and does another. Cursed is he if he neglects his people, leaving them in anger and suffering. And woe upon him if he lacks wisdom and insight, failing to uphold righteousness and walk the path of justice.
Cursed be the prince, if he does not fear,
Nor seek the path to heaven’s sphere.
Cursed be the prince, if wars he craves,
With nothing but a staff, his kingdom fades.
Interpretation: May God’s curse fall upon the ruler who lacks piety and does not prepare for the hereafter. Cursed is he who drifts from place to place, lost in pursuit. And doubly cursed is the ruler who rushes to war unarmed, wielding only a staff, leading his people to ruin.
It was said that a Sultan of Sennar, unwilling to let another man marry his beautiful daughter, sought a religious justification to wed her himself. He sent an envoy to Sheikh Farah requesting a ruling that would permit this union. Sheikh Farah’s Reply to the Sultan’s marriage request:
Tell the king, if he aspires,
To wed his daughter by the law of mules and sires.
Interpretation: Tell the king that we wed his daughter to him in the manner of mules and donkeys!
Two Anecdotes of Wisdom and Wit
It was widely said in Sheikh Farah’s time that he never told a lie, a remarkable trait considering that the rulers, elites, and common people of the Sennar Sultanate lived in an era when Islam was not yet deeply rooted in the culture of society.
- The Broken Jug
One day, Sheikh Farah’s daughter quarreled with her husband and left her marital home, returning to her father’s house. When she arrived, Sheikh Farah asked her what had happened, and she told him that she had left her husband. He remained silent, welcoming her back without question. Days passed, until one evening, Sheikh Farah approached his daughter holding a broken clay jug, weeping bitterly:
“Father why are you crying?” she asked.
“Look at my jug, my dear,” he said through his tears. “My beloved jug, the one that held the water for my ablution, it is broken. Look, it has shattered!”
She was bewildered. “Father are you crying over a jug?” she asked. “It is only clay! There is no need to grieve; you can easily find another, perhaps even a better one.”
Through his tears, he responded: “This jug has been with me for a long time. It was my companion. It saw me in my most private moments, shielding my private body from others’ eyes. And now, it is gone.”
At that moment, his daughter understood the hidden wisdom behind his words and so, she returned to her husband.
- The Half-Shorn Goat
It was widely believed in Sennar that Sheikh Farah never told a lie. One day, a group of men gathered and began discussing the sheikh’s reputation for unwavering honesty. Some were skeptical: “How could he never lie, when lies are everywhere?” they argued. Determined to test him, they devised a trick. They found a goat and shaved the wool off its right side, leaving the left side unshorn. Then, they chased the goat so that it ran past Sheikh Farah, ensuring that only its shaved side was visible to him. Later, they sent two men to ask him what he had seen. One of them approached him and said:
“O Sheikh, did you see a shorn goat pass this way? We are looking for it.”
Sheikh Farah replied calmly:
“Yes, I saw a goat pass by, and its right side was shorn. But as for its left side, I did not see it, so I cannot tell you whether it was shorn or not.”
Conclusion
There are four key conclusions to be drawn from this study on Sheikh Farah Wad Taktouk:
1. He enriched the hybrid Sudanese vernacular: by adopting a simple, accessible language that was embraced by the common people.
2. He played a crucial role in stimulating the public’s memory, intellect, and understanding of life.
3. The power behind his words and actions was not for his own sake, but for the benefit of the people.
4. He was bold and striking in his contributions; an influence that, without a doubt, compelled the rulers of the Sennar Sultanate toward righteousness.
Cover picture: A sign with the date of birth and death of Sheikh Farah . 2019 © Mohamed Grgory
Folktales in Sudan: A Cultural Treasure
Folktales in Sudan: A Cultural Treasure
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Sudanese folktales (أحاجي) hold a cherished place in the nation’s cultural fabric. These stories, traditionally shared by grandmothers, aunts, and older members during long, quiet evenings, are more than mere entertainment. They are vessels of social and cultural values, teaching children important lessons about morality, community, and resilience. However, with the rise of modern entertainment such as smartphones and television, the tradition of oral storytelling is under threat. These folktales, rich in cultural, moral, and educational value, demand preservation and revitalization to ensure their legacy endures.
In rural Sudanese communities, storytelling was not merely a form of entertainment but a vital mode of informal education. Each session often began with the storyteller saying:
“حجّيتكم ما بجّيتكم، خيرًا جانا وجاكم، أكل عشاكم، وجرى خلاكم.” “Hajaitkum ma bajaitkum, khayran jana wa jakum, akal ashakum wa jara khilakum.”
This phrase emphasizes that the storyteller shares the tale purely for entertainment and the benefit of the listeners, with no intention to harm, confuse, or create conflict among them.Traditionally, this opening phrase sets the tone, inviting listeners into the imaginative world of the tale while fostering a sense of communal participation.
These storytelling sessions were more than just amusement; they were educational moments that embedded cultural wisdom, communal values, and critical thinking skills in young listeners, ensuring the transmission of traditions across generations.
Recognizing the threat posed by modernization, the celebrated Sudanese scholar Abdullah Al-Tayyib documented these tales in his book Sudanese Folktales. His work captures the essence of Sudanese oral traditions -especially in the north, and ensures these narratives, passed down through generations, remain accessible for future ones. Through his meticulous compilation, Al-Tayyib safeguarded Sudan’s cultural heritage while highlighting the universal values embedded in its folktales. These tales may not reflect all the diverse and rich environments of Sudan, as they are largely dominated by the myths and stories of Northern Sudan along the Nile, but they express the overall Sudanese experience in the global consciousness in one way or another. Folktales are found throughout Sudan, with many tribes having their own unique stories that even preserve part of their history through these tales.
Sudanese folktales offer profound insights into the region's social and cultural values, presenting moral lessons through rich narratives and memorable characters. These tales highlight qualities such as intelligence, patience, and resourcefulness as essential for navigating life’s challenges, while promoting virtues like fairness, loyalty, and compassion.
The fox, or Al-Dib, is a recurring character known for its cunning and wit. In various stories, it uses intelligence to outsmart others, reinforcing the idea that cleverness and adaptability are crucial for overcoming challenges. Similarly, the wise elder, Al-Shaykh, often serves as a mentor, offering guidance and wisdom gained through experience. These figures underscore the importance of reflection, foresight, and understanding, illustrating that knowledge accumulated over time is invaluable for facing life’s trials.
Sudanese folktales act as moral compasses, warning against greed, dishonesty, and selfishness while celebrating fairness, loyalty, and compassion. In The Son of the Sultan, for instance, a young prince tests the fairness of his companions by offering them three eggs. Only the son of a woodcutter divides them equally, proving himself trustworthy and ultimately becoming the prince’s closest advisor.
On the other hand, women in these stories are frequently portrayed as strong and resourceful, overcoming adversity with courage and ingenuity. By centering women as narrators and protagonists, these tales challenge traditional gender roles and affirm the vital role women play in preserving culture and leading their communities.
The interconnectedness between humans and the environment is another recurring theme in Sudanese folktales. Stories featuring animals and natural elements emphasize balance and respect, teaching sustainable practices and the value of coexistence with nature. The use of Sudanese dialects, idioms, and cultural references further enriches these narratives, fostering pride in the nation’s heritage. Tales like Ardeeb Sasso and Oh Dove, Oh Dammam incorporate regional flavors and symbols, showcasing the diversity within Sudan’s cultural landscape. Expanding representation to include folktales from regions such as Darfur, Eastern Sudan, and the Nuba Mountains would further deepen the richness of the national narrative.
Among the iconic stories, Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula (Fatima the Beautiful and the Ogre) highlights the triumph of wisdom and bravery over fear, teaching the importance of courage and perseverance. The Son of the Sultan conveys lessons about trust, fairness, and moral discernment, emphasizing that true worth lies in character rather than social status. Tajouj and Mahalliq, a legendary love story akin to Qays and Layla, explores loyalty, love, and the consequences of societal constraints. Together, these tales not only entertain the mind but also preserve and transmit cultural values, offering timeless lessons that resonate across generations. They celebrate Sudan’s rich heritage and serve as a guide for fostering a more harmonious and equitable society.
As oral traditions decline in the face of modern technology, preserving Sudanese folktales has become an urgent cultural necessity. Incorporating these stories into educational curriculums and literacy programs offers a way to connect younger generations with their heritage while fostering creativity and critical thinking. Storytelling sessions can be integrated into schools, using folktales to teach language, history, and moral values through interactive activities like role-playing and illustration. Similarly, literacy programs can utilize these tales to improve reading skills, with riddles and poetic language from the stories enhancing comprehension and engagement.
Digital platforms also present a unique opportunity to revitalize these narratives. Adapting folktales into animated series, e-books, podcasts, or mobile apps can make them accessible and appealing to a modern audience. For instance, apps featuring narrated stories in Sudanese dialects or animated adaptations of iconic tales like Fatima Al-Samha wal Ghoula can preserve their essence while reaching global audiences. Community-driven initiatives, such as storytelling competitions or social media campaigns, can further document and celebrate these narratives. By blending tradition with technology, Sudanese folktales can continue to educate and inspire future generations, safeguarding their invaluable cultural legacy.
Sudanese folktales are more than stories; they are profound expressions of the nation’s cultural identity, reflecting the values, wisdom, and shared experiences of Sudanese society. These narratives not only preserve history but also influence the way Sudanese people see themselves and their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity. By revitalizing these folktales through educational initiatives, digital media, and artistic adaptations, they can continue to inspire creativity, nurture moral values, and celebrate Sudan’s diverse heritage. The richness of الأحاجي السودانية or Sudanese Folktales is a testament to the cultural ingenuity of Sudan and a bridge that connects its past to its present, ensuring its influence endures for generations to come.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Mail in the Mahdist State
Mail in the Mahdist State
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
The Mahdist State
(1302-1316 AH / 1885-1898 AD)
The modern postal system was introduced to Sudan during the rule of the Pashas and Khedives. This important and sensitive facility received significant attention from Muhammad Ali Pasha and his successors who ruled Sudan from 1821 until the liberation of Khartoum in January, 1885. One of the important factors that contributed to the development of the postal system in Sudan was its expansion during the reign of Khedive Ismail, who is regarded a pioneer of modernization in Sudan. He worked to connect all regions of Sudan through a network of modern postal and telegraph services. He also connected all ports on the Red Sea, such as Zilea, Berbera, HarYeahar, and Massawa, with Sawakin, which represented the centre and hub of these East African ports with Alexandria and Cairo. Inside Sudan the network was extended to various regions such as Darfur, Bahr al-Ghazal, Equatoria, and Eastern Sudan, which were linked by a telegraph network to the capital Khartoum and from there to Cairo. At the time, this was the longest network of telegraph lines on the continent.
As a result, telegraph offices spread across many cities and towns such as Halfa, Dongola, Berber, Khartoum, Kasala, Sawakin, Gadarif, White Nile, El Fashir, Wau and other large cities. In addition to the telegraph, there was a great need to connect different parts of Sudan via postal services, which were significantly facilitated by camels, horses, river boats, and vessels. The postal service received considerable attention from the succession of governors who ruled Sudan, as it represented one of the vital means for disseminating news about trade, merchants, foreigners, and various daily government transactions. This service contributed to facilitating and connecting different parts of Sudan.
After the liberation of Khartoum in January 1885 by the forces of Imam Al-Mahdi, the Mahdist regime showed a great interest in postal services due to the important and active role it played in managing the state and delivering documents and letters to various regions. This is evidenced by the Khalifa Abdullah’s attention to postal matters and his assignment of specific scribes, whom he called the ‘secret scribes’ to each amir or prince. He also worked on selecting the best men characterized by honesty, trustworthiness, and confidentiality to transport the state’s mail to its various regions. Additionally, he allocated the best camels and horses for the mail carriers and ordered that they be provided with the necessary facilities by the emirs and leaders of the Mahdist state in the different areas through which the mail passed. He gave them written orders to facilitate their tasks in case any of them needed to request assistance from the governor of the specified area or from the general public.
The Khalifa Abdullah assigned four scribes to draft his various letters and correspondences to leaders, princes, and sheikhs, and they were called the "El-Makhsoussin," meaning the private writers for Khalifa Abdullah’s letters. Due to the importance of mail to the Khalifa, he dedicated a specific time each morning to reviewing incoming messages from the different regions, which were accompanied by an oral report from the mail carrier, serving as a supplement to the content of the letter. The Khalifa relied on the oral report alongside the written one in making his decisions, as he could not visit the various regions of the state. In addition to the scribes of the letters, there were specific scribes for amir Yaqub (jorab el-Ray), the second man in the state after the Khalifa, and each amir, or regional governor, had their scribes as well. Military leaders also had their own scribes.
For letters and messages to be officially recognized in the Mahdist state, they had to be sealed with their owner’s seal, as the seal was proof of the authenticity of the message. Thus, seals appeared in the Mahdist state, with Imam Al-Mahdi having four seals, one of which bore the inscription “la Illah ila Allah Mohamed Rasoul Allah, Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi Abdullah 1292 AH,” considered the first seal of Imam Al- Mahdi. The Khalifa Abdullah’s seal was oval-shaped, inscribed with the phrase “Hasbona Allah wa nim alwakil.” In addition to the Mahdi and the Khalifa, each amir , leader, and official in the Mahdist state had their own seal, and they were not allowed to replace it or create another in case of loss without written permission from the Khalifa Abdullah.
In order for the Mahdist state to continue carrying out its written tasks, it relied on the paper obtained from the previous Pasha and Khedive rule in Sudan. However, despite the large quantities of paper at the outset these began to dwindle and they were soon faced with a shortage. Therefore, orders were issued by the Khalifa and Amir Yaqub to all amirs, leaders, and workers in the various departments, instructing them to rationalize the use of paper and not to write on paper except for important matters that warranted it.
By tracking the postal system in the Mahdist state, it becomes evident that groups of individuals belonging to specific tribes worked in postal service, including the Ababda, the Jaaliya, the Taaisha, and the Hadandawa. To develop this important and sensitive institution in the Mahdist state, the treasurer Ibrahim Wad Adlan (1302-1307 AH / 1885-1889 AD) presented an important proposal aimed at improving and increasing the effectiveness of the postal system in the state, but his proposal was not accepted by the Khalifa, who preferred to continue with the traditional postal system.
In general, there are a number of tasks that the postal service successfully accomplished in the Mahdist state, including; connecting the various regions of the state to the capital, Omdurman; facilitating the Khalifa Abdullah’s access to information in various ways; enabling him to monitor the amirs, leaders, and workers in their districts and increasing the effectiveness of the intelligence system in the Mahdist state.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan (The Stone Press)
Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan (The Stone Press)
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Printing is considered one of humanity’s greatest inventions due to its importance in capturing and disseminating knowledge. The printing press, in its various forms, significantly contributed to the growth and development of many civilizations in Europe, the Far East, and the Arab world.
In Sudan, the introduction of the printing press is linked to Egyptian rule under Mohamed Ali Pasha. The first printing press to enter Sudan was a small press known as Al-Amiriya or Al-Hajar stone press believed to be of French origin because all the stone presses that entered Egypt during that period were French. For the new press in Khartoum to operate effectively, a specialized team accompanied it to Sudan, led by Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed along with a group of Egyptian technicians. After his death, Ibrahim Afendi Ahmed was succeeded by his son Hassan Bey, who by now had acquired the nickname Al-Matbaji, meaning printer. Today, the Al-Matbaji family is a household name in Sudan.
Al-Amiriya press succeeded in meeting the printed material requirments of schools in Khartoum and various government institutions around the country. It also helped cover the needs of the government in Khartoum in terms of paper and stamps, without which government procedures could not have been carried out, as well as notebooks and other paper related items.
The press was located within the military HQ building in Khartoum, which is located near the current presidential palace. A small paper factory was attached to the press to help meet the country’s paper needs, and was so successful that all traders in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities obtained their paper supplies from this factory. The press performed its mission very well, and was even used by Gordon Pasha to issue financial bonds, known as Gordon Bonds, in 1884 when Khartoum was besieged by Mahdist troops which resulted in a shortage of currency. This was the only means by which to pay the salaries of soldiers trapped within the city.
On January 26, 1885 the Mahdi’s forces led by Mohamed Ahmad Al-Mahdi succeeded in taking control of Khartoum and among the most important assets that the Mahdists acquired was the stone printing press. The press received significant attention from the Khalifa, Abdullah al-Tayshi, the successor of the Mahdi, who decided to relocate it from the military command in Khartoum to Omdurman, the new capital of the Mahdist state.
To ensure the press continued to operate, the Khalifa ordered that it be affiliated to the central treasury in Omdurman and be part of the military unit in the city. The Khalifa then summoned individuals who had direct experience of the printing press during the rule of the Egyptian Pashas in Sudan to be part of the new operating staff.
The Khalifa succeeded in gathering a large number of experienced individuals in this field, and the press resumed its work but this time it was under the Mahdist state. Prince Mukhtar Badi, originating from the Danagla tribe but who lived in Bara, in the Kordofan region, was appointed administrator of the press, assisted by someone called Hasan Satti. In addition, several Copts and scribes, who had worked at the press during the Pashas rule of Sudan were also employed. Among those who contributed their expertise to the press were Mohamed Zahni, Hasan Sala, Mohamed al-Amin, Omar al-Azhari, and Ibrahim al-Matbaji.
In the month of Shaban in the year 1303 AH, the printing press began to operate producing numerous documents, books, and internal and external correspondences. The administrative structure of the press was straightforward. At its head was the press administrator in the rank of amir or prince. There were also language proofreaders and supervisors responsible for preparing, reviewing, and approving the texts before they went to print. These included Abu al-Gasim Ahmad Hashim and Al-Mudathir Ibrahim al-Hijaz. There was also a press storekeeper.
Through this simple administrative structure, the press was able to produce many publications, documents, and a variety of books commissioned by the Khalifa. Nevertheless, the facility also faced several difficulties, most notably a shortage of paper. This was because the Mahdist state was unable to import paper from abroad due to the blockade imposed by Britain. Thus, with the stock of paper that the state had seized significantly dwindling as a result of daily consumption, Prince Yagub (Jorab al-Ray) reduced the quantity of paper allocated to various regions, princes, and other departments of the state. The second problem faced by the printing press was a rebellion by some of its workers against the authority of the Khalifa which led to the destruction of paper, ink cartridges, and printing tools which was done to deprive the state of the valuable service provided by the printing press.
Following the British victory over the Mahdist forces at the Battle of Omdurman on December 2 1898, and their subsequent control over the country, the British seized the Al-Hajar printing press. The first editions of the colonial publication The Gazette, as well as the text of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement on Sudan, were printed there.
This historical narrative of the Al-Hajar printing press in Sudan reveals that it played a crucial role in three distinct historical periods of the country and at each stage, it fulfilled its function effectively. Some of the most significant accomplishments of the press include: fulfilling all the printing requirements of the Sudanese government, producing account books for merchants in Khartoum and other Sudanese cities, printing proclamations made by the Mahdi and the Khalifa, as well as various books during the Mahdist period and printing the 1899 agreement between Britain and Egypt regarding Sudan, as well as orders and directives from the colonial administration to the Sudanese people during its early days.
Artwork designed by Hind Abdelbagi
Stamps
Stamps
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
The following collection of stamps is from the personal collections of Ismail Abdallah Mohammed Yousif. Ismail, a teacher and journalist, lived in Omdurman and had turned his house into a museum for the community. He also frequently participated in festivals and exhibitions to showcase his collection which includes over 1,000 magazines, many of which date from the 1950-70s, and over 1,000 objects including newspapers, stamps, objects such jewellery, antique kitchenware, gramophones, film projectors and much more.
These stamps, as well as many of the items in his collection, are published on the Sudan Memory site.
Sudan has a long history of stamps going back to pre-independence and the famous camel postman design. Stamps commemorating momentous events such as the country’s independence from British rule received prime position in the media. “Newly formed cabinet holds its first meeting. Sudan independence commemorative stamps go on sale,” is the headline of The Sudan Times in 1956 (National Records Office collection of newspapers on the Sudan Memory website). Since then, stamps have become a record of the different interpretations of national identity throughout Sudan’s history.
Cover picture © Sudanese stamps commemorating the centenary of the Karari Invasion - 150 dinars. (National Records Office collection of manuscripts on the Sudan Memory website).
Battle of Kerreri
Battle of Kerreri
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project
Al Amin Khalf Allah sings a traditional song about the Battle of Kerreri
This film is part of a collection of documentary films that has been filmed and produced as part of the Western Sudan Community Museums project WSCM which was originally intended to be showcased in 3 museums around Sudan, Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, Khartoum, Sheikan Museum in Obaid, North Kordofan, and Darfur Museum in Nyala, South Darfur. These films show a collection of traditional music related to the exhibitions of these museums. All films in this collection were produced by Mark Whatmore and Yoho Media. Yoho Media worked with young local filmmakers on a start-up project. They produced 52 short videos showcasing the living heritage of Western Sudan and archive footage for use in the museums and sharing on the internet. Several are showcased on Sudan Memory. You can enjoy watching them in this playlist or take a look at the other playlists in the channel containing more documentaries from the WSCM project